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Grip on road surfaces
! ~( S& V' ^* A) _8 a0 H4 ~4 z8 y4 Introduction4 i* F- V/ L H
5 Foreword: grip and its double paradox/ f" F0 v/ g1 F! f1 y) ]( l
7 I Rubber and grip
6 ?( N3 p: e3 X4 Z% t- {* d0 |8 RUBBER: A VISCO-ELASTIC MATERIAL
6 ?' l; M2 w/ N" n$ H! G o. q& w8 What is a visco-elastic material?
# I# s* [% d& ]+ {' u7 o8 A little more information on… the behaviour of elastic materials3 {5 X! |7 m: A2 Z
9 A little more information on… the behaviour of viscous materials
2 d, F$ O! m* e. C4 T; w1 Y10 A little more information on… the behaviour of visco-elastic materials1 e% E7 V* R% L" c) {: N
11 Where does the visco-elasticity of tyre rubber come from?1 `& {" o9 V9 u2 d! d, o2 r
12 The modulus of rubber
& v/ F1 Q9 S. x7 _13 INFLUENCE OF STRESS FREQUENCY AND
, ]2 ~! C X( M6 [* y8 }8 tTEMPERATURE ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF RUBBER) I- H9 ^# H3 x- V
13 Influence of stress frequency
. g9 J+ d7 y9 p8 Q7 P; n5 B* J* h14 Influence of temperature: l j L% k8 l% O
15 Frequency - temperature equivalence) x r) x8 X# K2 H p
16 A little more information on… the WLF equation/ _* q" D/ a4 h" z
17 THE MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE RUBBER-ROAD" s4 Y8 ]1 n' I, t
INTERFACE FRICTION; r. s: A; h& P/ l0 `5 n
17 Road roughness effects. k' @- {1 h( `+ H
18 Molecular adhesion/ {* c$ z) L( d
19 Rubber and grip: don’t forget the basics!
0 p4 H! l4 }- l+ j. f* `21 II How road roughness
) a4 `0 |! w$ i- Z8 K! d, laffects grip
/ k+ g7 T# m) D0 g# ^0 L22 CHARACTERISATION OF ROAD SURFACES
. ~% |, t. L& s3 g# C23 Measurement of macroroughness
+ n: `. x9 N+ X7 K" n, n* c9 Q- t23 Measurement of microroughness
- Q( ~6 M2 H+ f24 Concepts regarding road surfaces4 Z6 _- a e6 ?) p7 s' g: g% E
25 Measurement of the load bearing surface! L# \3 f; p ^( D2 t8 S
26 Characterisation of the friction coefficient
2 }1 P# R: i1 o% r4 ~) _: ?of a rubber-road interface f# E! f0 x7 d0 @# o' B
27 INFLUENCE OF ROAD SURFACES ON THE
( q& V- H1 A/ y+ q% I, e- cCOEFFICIENT OF FRICTION3 ^1 I. K& u) _1 |$ y" s, A
28 Variation in friction coefficient on a dry surface. n% Q4 {5 x- ?! |& N4 P8 D3 D
29 Variation in friction coefficient on damp or wet road surfaces
( a. P1 _- b$ R( m8 w6 @$ d8 F30 Relative importance of the rubber factor and the road surface
' e* y/ i9 B0 o4 c) \factor in grip% P) {6 \( o2 @0 Z$ x% K
30 What about snow?9 w! ~4 p& {* }+ h
30 And what about ice?
- d# [' W$ h [5 k7 T: u: S31 How road roughness affects grip: don’t forget the basics!
7 U/ C( s0 ]1 L! k7 }33 III Generation of grip forces in: b6 e5 z) y1 c
the contact patch
% {' ^; S2 a! s4 h& @/ F* `- x34 FRICTION MECHANISMS OF A RUBBER BLOCK
8 J4 X" p, }2 Z+ t) D- {' L+ J$ Q2 Y34 Shear (or pseudo-slippage)( G7 | _, R: s9 U- C3 m6 k3 J
35 Slippage; ^ _4 F; d% E* D$ `# g
36 LONGITUDINAL GRIP IN BRAKING; \+ E" z9 h5 r! _( R0 A
36 Source of slippage0 L+ D7 R m+ ~; k" p
37 A little more information on... slippage and braking3 Y, ^& c8 t* [& S! m
38 Longitudinal friction force2 ?4 h1 K+ i5 M$ K6 c, b
38 Longitudinal friction coefficient μ
' v; `9 E y5 z% _9 u3 B4 v3 v38 A little more information on... the coefficient of longitudinal friction5 U) h3 n9 _3 L8 v A8 w3 }- e% O
39 The longitudinal friction law μ(G)
! X* r C7 I# A0 g40 Generation of braking forces in the contact patch
# T1 V1 x5 }; q, V3 b40 A little more information on... the maximum shear value of the
$ t2 P* X2 d+ Etread block and the beginning of slippage- Y$ _/ t2 |/ A7 w6 S
42 Examples of slippage and shear as a function of the coefficient of# [1 w- U7 [4 S6 H9 A$ Q
grip and the slippage rate
4 @8 ~1 q' ^5 l2 ?: _42 A little more information on... maximum length of shear and
3 g, }& m/ J w/ Dslippage
$ t) i7 _0 b R' ^" g9 O$ G$ D43 Analysis of the μ(G) curve0 E, f' @. c( _6 _
45 Longitudinal grip in braking: don’t forget the basics!4 r d2 F. s* C- f% N4 Q
46 TRANSVERSAL GRIP IN CORNERING
2 w; ~9 k0 S6 \, h% r; K7 j) N46 Centrifugal force
) r) i+ o; ]7 x46 Slip angle
" |; l5 q$ x0 {, m! N5 B4 c4 [III.3
. x, O/ }% E5 z _7 f3 j+ cIII.26 _ m4 m& [ |4 H
III.1* f" ]6 W2 Z+ f2 Q
48 Transversal friction force
" J) ^1 A, I* j3 p! L3 H- I48 Coefficient of transversal friction τ
, |1 L3 E7 Y5 n1 p5 w& ^4 v2 b48 A little more information on... the coefficient of transversal friction
; H5 `0 v ~' ~3 C5 t3 Y49 Effect of the bend radius on the maximum cornering speed
6 v4 b3 w# P9 U( s2 s+ g# r+ m49 A little more information on... maximum cornering speed
: a, h, \* M$ t4 H1 e& w. e6 E50 Law of transversal friction Y(δ)
, E" o+ t% `& r1 x1 g% l% b7 U50 A little more information on... the transversal grip coefficient" X! s3 A1 H' [: I4 x
51 Generation of transversal forces in the contact patch; u, V) k% V. S9 h5 ^& P2 _9 d) g- d
52 Analysis of the Y(δ) law2 l- r' w- k& ~) j& a
52 A little more information on... the maximum length of shear6 g8 m4 S0 G7 m( C( ]! E
and slippage; T9 s5 S8 B, A# ]6 T
54 Transversal grip in cornering: don’t forget the basics!
5 y I5 L5 I1 g5 K. [55 SHARING THE GRIP POTENTIAL ON THE ROAD$ @) {* t0 n$ c% p3 i6 X7 I+ q
55 Combined grip
# q& e) x3 C$ x9 C2 l55 A potential to be shared5 v" v5 _7 z* T: [
57 ABS, x6 _* m, Z8 W
57 A little more information on... how the ABS works
$ n$ X& c) G0 \59 IV Grip on wet surfaces9 B" d# ?+ \. ?" Y
61 THE HYDRODYNAMIC ZONE: DISPERSAL
' y; f$ [" ` f) d* q6 L7 tAND DRAINAGE
* W8 m) s5 Q$ g% j# H61 A little more information on... the speed at which aquaplaning occurs1 J6 V! I: x; n0 Q. G/ U
62 A rounded footprint to reduce the pressure exerted by the bank
) ]$ q- y7 y$ U* m' qof water on the tyre
& g( o1 |" u% m7 Y. N# Q) i0 |* `62 A little more information on... the rounded contact patch which
! I' P) R; V4 m( a6 `4 @6 Z( gincreases aquaplaning speed
& U& i. v- Q( X( V9 v63 Wide tyres and water dispersal- _4 b$ \7 M% e! }1 p8 ?
64 Angled tread grooves to drain away water to the side/ g; \# |+ ?( y% y6 F6 F/ B" G
65 THE VISCODYNAMIC ZONE: STORING WATER IN
% w* K7 v; t& u6 W: X7 N# C* KTHE TREAD GROOVES
8 N4 [/ p; C9 n65 Compression of the water by the tread blocks' [. K" I( F9 X. ^& }5 o7 r y2 |
65 A little more information on... the time for water transfer, Z L2 F/ I! i8 P7 F$ [, h
to the storage zones. p$ x$ X# Z0 ]2 D) z
67 Sipes and grip on wet surfaces
8 k' h0 A/ I% B7 Z$ Q1 m69 DAMP TO DRY ZONE: RESTORING
) J l& g i3 ?, ~; s" EDRY CONTACT
0 h* }+ w! K0 R0 P69 Edges to break through the film of water
/ I9 x; C+ O9 G$ @8 t70 Grip on wet surfaces: don’t forget the basics!
) X7 P, a( M' ^; T$ x71 V Grip and vehicle handling
9 A1 G5 S* e) ~6 I72 LOAD TRANSFER
) r2 r |6 S# l72 Longitudinal load transfer
) y% I, z2 E6 l9 m( G72 A little more information on... how load transfer affects braking
4 N8 L, X" w1 Q. refficiency
! x, R1 O0 j V& U* }73 Lateral load transfer7 `5 U6 E1 f7 Z4 @
73 A little more information on... how load transfer affects
) z n# [" Q& S" }cornering
. q* s6 J. B8 z- C# {; e- J3 ]1 w74 V.2 UNDERSTEER AND OVERSTEER
& C% c5 M0 X! q. V$ {, r; QV.1% M. z" t9 u1 C0 x
IV.33 E0 x5 J0 X H
IV.2
% `$ E/ P, j$ ?77 VI Testing tyre grip
+ J4 _; \( x, ~* v79 ANALYTICAL TESTS$ S( m) g z' L$ j$ w# L. v
79 Road simulators1 p$ |# C8 [8 X9 v! Y
80 Laboratory vehicles3 D3 `( K) N5 W% T$ @6 a
81 VEHICLE TRACK TESTS5 x2 g+ D3 ^6 b& |2 M1 g
82 Testing longitudinal grip+ n% W) u8 ] R. |9 d/ l
83 A little more information on... calculating the coefficient of grip μ
3 k8 c$ v% C* o- B; G b0 Q& e84 Transversal grip tests, N7 C7 q/ U2 `+ @$ P8 z3 n
87 VII Grip and rolling resistance
" r9 X1 M. X/ F8 ^4 _88 Where does rolling resistance come from?
0 v: A9 S/ @3 i( e+ o C/ E$ d88 Maximise grip and minimise rolling resistance: a challenge in& z( \( C3 s0 s0 ]; N
physical science
& a/ F/ z' u+ U5 \" Q0 ]9 t90 Two different frequency ranges
, d4 }" ~- \/ `7 i: l- j91 Index |
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