history of rubber industry

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DISCOVERY OF VULCANIZATION (1840s) TO ABOUT 1905
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(BRAZILIAN RUBBER BOOM)

Vulcanization

0 n/ j5 o6 I+ e; qUnvulcanized rubber suffers from softening at high ambient temperatures and hardening at low temperatures: anyone who has owned crepe-soled footwear will be aware of this. Ways were sought to overcome this by treating the rubber with all sorts of chemicals, eventually (in 1839) Charles Goodyear found vulcanization by accidentally heating sulphur-coated rubber which he observed became firm and was stable under heating and cooling. The reader may wish to digress to learn more about the importance of Goodyear.
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( G; j3 \+ G. R7 d5 I; s& m4 YAccelerators of vulcanization

, C' D9 Y+ Y1 u" r. G8 y& a5 a- nGoodyear found that metallic oxides and carbonates speeded vulcanization, but lead accelerators discoloured vulcanizates. Rowley patented use of ammonia in vulcanization, but it is doubtful if significance was noted. Gummiwerke Wundt using red oil (crude aniline) by 1902 and acting as an accelerator. Much of this emprical work was highly hazardous and appears to have consisted of taking the by-products from coal distillation (for town gas), using them to soften the rubber and finding that they accelerated vulcanization and led to longer product life (and presumably lessened the life of the workforce).



Rubber processing industry
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The twin developments of mastication by Hancock and vulcanization by Goodyear enabled the birth of the modern rubber industry. By the 1850s rubber was being used in used in springs for railway rolling stock and the pneumatic tyre had been invented by R.W. Thomson in 1845, but had failed to be exploited. This had to await another Scot: Dunlop.



This Victorian locomotive could attain speeds of 80 mile/hour and ran on rubber springs
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$ S9 |6 _1 L: m: M1 W0 }Wild trees fail to meet demand for rubber

The demand for rubber was growing and supplies were dependent upon the collection of rubber from wild trees (Hevea brasiliensis) growing in the Amazon Basin and to a limited extent upon Funtumia elastica growing in the Congo region. There was no control of the raw material as it was collected and processed under primitive conditions (many of the trees were damaged and the labourers were abused). Furthermore, it was anticipated that the supply would eventually fail to meet the growing demand. There was pressure from the early industrialists, including Thomas Hancock, to establish more reliable supplies, as well as from the geographer Clements Markam.
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- r8 I$ }3 E0 c4 pClements Markham
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Because Sir Clements Markham was a Civil Servant, there has been a tendancy to consider him his as little more than a bureaucrat and to underplay his contribution to the rubber story. The digression places Markam's full contribution within its rightful context. It is Markham who arranged the expeditions to the Amazon to collect seeds and seedlings for transfer to South Asia (and eventually to South East Asia). Wickham usually receives most of the credit, but other were involved, notably Collins and Cross (who has probably received too little attention).



Brazilian Seeds

  F3 z, i8 b& w9 i: |" d7 ZHenry Wickham successfully gathered 70,000 seeds in the Amazon region and shipped them back to Britain where they were germinated at Kew where some 2700 germinated. Seedlings were shipped to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and to Singapore and so into the Malayan Peninsular. The movement of these materials by steam boat and steam train was a magnificent achievement. Some commentators imply that the seeds were "stolen" (and the local guides in Manaus state this), but it would appear that the seeds were removed in an official way, but that the implications of this transfer failed to be appreciated until estate production in South East Asia actually began - a long time after the seeds were gathered.
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/ f; ]* m2 k  aHenry Wickhem
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Plantation industry

The plantation industry was slow to establish itself, although Hevea had flowered in Kuala Kangsar (Malaysia) in 1880 and a Ficus elasica plantation had been established in Indonesia in 1861. Investment in plantations had to await the demand created by pneumatic tyres and motoring. Henry Ridley, who did much to refine tapping methology, attempted to encourage the establishment of plantations. There are tales that Ridley used to carry rubber seeds in his pockets for distribution to potential planters in what was then Malaya. Small scale plantings were made in several West African countries during the 1890s.



/ @: {0 K6 B: h! w# ?' n7 nHenry Ridley

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& u+ f' G. a: c. `By the middle of the nineteenth century there were many, and varied, outlets for natural rubber. These included seals for sewers; conveyor and transmission belting; flooring; many items associated with clothing; inflatable boats and, perhaps most interesting of all, the use of natural rubber as a spring material in railway and road vehicles. The illustrations show some early examples. The ever-eager Hancock published a book which lists many of the Victorian innovations, including some of those made from ebonite (many of which to be exhibited at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851).

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Pneumatic tyres

9 a- `* f) F5 ?The story of the Scottish vet (John Boyd Dunlop) who assisted with his wee lad's tricycling by inventing the pneumatic tyre in 1888 is well-known. It is less well-known that the innovative activity took place in Belfast (it was the Irish stone setts which hurt the boy), and not in Ayrshire (Dunlop was born in the village of Dreghorn, between Kilmarnock and Ardrossan). This created a new demand for rubber as cycling became popular, but the real demand came from motoring which developed during the 1890s and becoming fully viable in the next period.

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% q; O$ C$ W' S1 g5 C) p) WThe Michelin brothers were the major entrepreneurs as they encouraged the use of pneumatic tyres for early racing vehicles, notably in the 1895 Paris to Bordeaux race. Progress in Britain was inhibited by the need for a man with a red flag to walk in front of road motor vehicles.

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New industrialists
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Seiberling founded Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co in Akron in 1898 (the company is based on the name of the inventor, and is not related to the inventor) and in 1899 Harvey Firestone created the Firestone Tire & Rubber Co.: the latter was eventually to be acquired by the Japanese Bridgestone Corporation. The United States Rubber Co had been established in 1892 (it is a now a part of Continental). Even earlier (1872) B.F. Goodrich had been founded: it became a major tyre company, but now concentrates upon the supply of synthetic rubber and other chemicals.
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* _6 z2 }8 x6 P+ }6 b  \! G9 dRapid growth in demand
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The use of motor transport grew rapidly especially in the USA. Early tyres had a very short life. Demand for rubber grew and the price went sky high. This encouraged the rapid growth of rubber plantations in Ceylon, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and French Indochina (Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam and Cambodia). It should be remebered that early motor vehicles (horseless carriages) were intended for a rich elite and the costs involved were regarded as being trivial.
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+ N7 Y9 U9 H2 X9 PSmallholders
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2 |3 H  v1 F" d7 H+ wMany of the indigenous inhabitants of these areas had been farming for generations. These farmers were perfectly capable of perceiving a good idea and rapidly took up rubber cultivation on a smaller scale. Eventually, such activity was ruthlessly discouraged by the estate companies (most of whom were based in the great financial centres, such as London and Paris), with the assistance of the colonial administrators once prices fell during the subsequent Inter-War period (1920s and 1930s).
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3 Q/ h  r# V& x) HRubber War & Brazilian rubber boom

$ n, t4 I$ Q: q8 x' [. e9 qSerier recorded the "rubber war" between Bolivia and Brazil. At the end of the nineteenth century the Acre region of the upper Amazon was a part of Bolivia. The inhabitants of the Acre region attempted to obtain independence and this led to conflict between Brazil and Bolivia. The Treaty of Petropolis ceded the Acre region to Brazil in return for a payment and the construction of a railway into the region. Before the plantation industry got under way there was a rapid increase in demand which was partially met by a ruthless exploitation of the wild Hevea stands in the Amazon Basin. There was a ruthless exploitation of labour and of the trees. The magnificent opera house in Manaus is a relic of this period.
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1 ?% ^- c" D. K2 [' @! jGuayule

In 1901 William Lawrence discovered how to extract from guayule. This desert shrub grows in Northern Mexico and the neighbouring regions of the USA. Until the full impact of plantation rubber from Asia became evident in the market place guayule was able to compete due to the high rubber prices prevailing before then.

5 s& \. N. M4 U+ M- lSummary (so far)

The above very brief history of the rubber industry up to early twentieth century is intended to show that demand was a key factor in the development of the industry.

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ABOUT 1905 TO ABOUT 1939
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Advances in Motoring
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: J1 Z# Z  u1 b; S( j% w1 JThe elitism in motoring gradually collapsed within this period due to the development of mass production, notably by Ford, and the quest for cheaper vehicles in Europe developed from the motorcycle (such as the Morgan three-wheeler). Early tyres were both expensive ($100) and short-lived (750 km), but development was rapid: by 1920 they cost $30 and lasted 20,000 km. Pneumatic tyres were gradually developed for buses and trucks, mainly in about the middle of this period, prior to that such tyres tended to made from solid rubber.

Ghosh has some very interesting contemporary comments on this aspect: About 1910 motor cars and trucks were adopted almost everywhere in the West and since then the expansion of automobilism has been almost phenomenal throughout the world. For instance, at the present time (the mid-1920s) it is estimated that there is 1 automobile to every 6 persons in the United States, 1 to every 51 persons in Denmark, 1 to every 53 in France, 1 to every 55 in Great Britain, 1 to every 75 in Sweden, 1 to every 84 in Belgium and 1 to every 99 in Norway. Workmen in the United States actually drive to the factories in their own motor cars mainly because their country possesses the largest automobile industry and the American operative;helped to some degree by 'prohibition' is deservingly passing through his days of abounding prosperity.
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4 y$ L% @- ~& M# FPlantation Agriculture
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Ghosh (see above) noted that the initiation of rubber culture in plantations many years before the advent of the automobile was really providential for the success of rapid locomotion. Ghosh, like many commentators, over-states the foresight of the plantation industry as such (that is in comparison with the transfer of rubber seeds from Brazil to Asia): the real spur for the development of plantations in Asia came from the increase in Brazilian rubber prices in the latter part of 1905, which in turn had been a consequence of the new-found market in motor vehicles. In the USA rubber prices rose to $1.50 per pound, as compared with $0.68 in 1903-04. Michelin invested in rubber plantations in "French Indochina" (Vietnam and Cambodia) in 1906. By this time, Dunlop was able to take advantage of its own estates in Malaya (Malaysia).
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Advances in Compounding
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. E. Z1 s' O( t* xMany improvements were made to compounding techniques during the 1905-1939 period. Accelerators and antioxidants became widely available. W Ostwald patented the use of aniline as an antioxidant in 1908. Aniline is a powerful softener, and a weak accelerator and antioxidant, but highly toxic. Bayer of Leverkusen patented organic bases as accelerators in 1911 as part of their development of synthetic rubber which lacked the proteinaceous materials in natural rubber which accelerate vulcaniation.
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* N9 C% @: |* EIn 1914 F. Hoffman and K. Gottlob of Bayer claimed that all bases having a dissociation constant greater than 1 x 10-8 and which show an alkaline reaction at vulcanization temperatures are accelerators. In 1915 Ostromyslenski patented a non-nitrogenous (xanthate) accelerator. During the 1920s there was a considerable amount of work to elucidate the roles of accelerators and zinc oxide in the vulcanization process. This work led to the discovery of diphenyl guanidine and mercaptobenzthiazole as accelerators. More on vulcanization.



Carbon blacks
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In 1904 S.C. Mote of the India Rubber Gutta Percha and Telegraph Works in Silvertown, London, discovered the value of carbon black produced by the incomplete combustion of natural gas. His work showed that this material increased the mechanical strength beyond anything prevusly known. By 1910 carbon black was widely used, especially in tyres. Lamp blacks had been known to Hancock and used as a pigment. Lamp blacks had been produced via the incomplete combustion of organic wastes, but their production from natural gas had been discovered by Wright in 1864.


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Channel blacks (where natural gas is burned against reciprocating iron channels) had been discovered by McNutt in 1892. In 1922 Columbian Carbon developed the furnace black process where combustion is through larger flames in an enclosed space. The particle sizes of such blacks can be tailored to meet the requirements o the rubber industry (which is the main market for such materials). Thermal blacks had been invented in 1916: in this process natural gas is injected into very hot chambers: fine thermal blacks offer good reinforcement.
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The Banbury mixer was developed during this period (from about 1916 on): this enabled large quantities of rubber to be compounded in a relatively short time and was especially significant in the development of compounding for the tyre industry.

原来丶如此

看不懂，不知道LZ发这些是要干嘛？？